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Introduction

This article provides a brief introduction into documenting software programs for Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC). Its aim is to provide clear guidance in the program documentation for PLC's.

This article is based on the Ladder Logic format of PLC Programming, but many of the points also related to Instruction list (IL) and Function Block Diagram (FBD).

PLC Programs should be written and documented so that they can be easily maintained and modified by others than those who originally wrote the program. All PLC Programming Editors have increased documentation capabilities including Siemens, Modicon, Allen Bradley and Mitsubishi.

Documenting PLC Software
Early Programmable Logic Controllers had little or no capacity for the documentation of programs. For technicians to understand the logic the program had to be followed from inputs to outputs. This made fault finding or modifications to programs difficult.

As PLC's have developed the programming packages have also improved, allowing for the software to be clearly annotated.

The programming tools available for most PLC's allow for the following documentation.

Rung Title
Rung Comments
Symbols and Symbol Comments.
This article provides a practical guide to using these documentation techniques.

Symbols and Symbol Comments
The purpose of symbolic addressing is to allow the PLC programmer to write the software using meaningful symbols rather than having to remember addresses.

General rules for Input and Output symbols should be to use the tags from Process and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID) or electrical drawing references. Where these are not available use of a simple description should be used.

For the above the following could be used.

Symbol address Description
VAC01_STPB I 0.0 Vacuum Pump Start Pushbutton
VAC01_SPPB I 0.1 Vacuum Pump Stop Pushbutton
VAC01 Q 0.0 Vacuum Pump Run
VAC01_TRAL M 1.1 Vacuum Pump Trip Alarm (Latched)
VAC01_AL M 1.1 Vacuum Pump Alarm Latch (Failed to Start/Stop)

Although many program editors can allow for more characters within the symbols it is recommended to keep the symbol short and use the comments to provide further details. Our recommendation is to build the symbols from the blocks of two characters to represent the the meaning and to keep the length less than 10.

The numbers tell a tale of programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) firm entrenchment in control applications. For instance, hardware sales figures for 2001 show $80 million spent for open control (PCbased control), with $1.1 billion being spent on programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) solutions. Even as the trend is for both figures to grow by 2004, programmable logic controllers ( PLCs ) still have a sizable advantage over PCs.

Engineers these days are calling for networking capabilities. A programmable logic controllers ( PLCs ) are now low-cost dedicated controllers. They offer more processing power and have added networking capabilities with other programmable logic controllers ( PLCs ) through serial connections. A micro programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) has an ethernet connection with optional DeviceNet or Profibus modules. So the total system is not just a stand-alone controller, but one that can network to bigger programmable logic controllers ( PLCs ). Also, increased processing speeds allow for any given programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) to do more. Because of these changes, the programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) remains a viable control option.

One trend is towards a so-called hybrid programmable logic controller ( PLCs ). These more common hybrid applications are challenging the capabilities of each control approach. Their number is growing because fewer applications are pure discrete or pure process installations. One example is a programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) on a board with sequence logic-controller functions. It plugs into a PC ISA slot and has the same programming and instruction set as a stand-alone programmable logic controller ( PLCs ). So if you already have a PC on the factory floor, you don't need to buy a programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) in a box, just the board that plugs into the PC. It has a separate power supply so that if the PC crashes, the programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) keeps running. The board also has its own I/O connectors.

Another type of programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) is an industrially hardened gateway device. It comes with a number of ports and can be loaded with a soft programmable logic controller ( PLCs ). It has ethernet, DeviceNet, and serial communications and serves as a bridge between protocols on the factory floor between legacy systems and current systems. For instance, data from serial devices such as bar code scanners can be connected to the gateway and through the soft programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) program.

After more than a decade of articles touting the benefits of PC-based control over a programmable logic controller and predictions of the PLC's demise, this much is clear: both PCs and programmable logic controllers ( PLCs ) have their place in contemporary control systems. In many cases, they will work as a team.

In lower-end process industries such as food plants where the programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) is strongly entrenched, there is little interest in switching to PC-based control. The reason is the programmable logic controller's ( PLCs ) suitability. Sequential logic control provided by a programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) is best suited for round-the-clock operations common in those industries. In particular, a programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) can offer repeatable, reliable control conducive to high-speed, repetitive processes. Dedicated performance and a high level of security are also benefits of a programmable logic controller (PLCs ). The packaging side of a food plant lends itself well to sequential logic control which makes a programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) the best choice for conveying and sorting applications.

Five years ago, the prediction was that PCs were going to take traditional programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) applications by storm. The reason they didn't is that the programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) has continued to be a good, low-cost control option. For instance, a programmable logic controller ( PLCs ) with highspeed counter inputs, loop controls, analog points, and basic math calculations are available in the $200 to $400 range with 100 or more I/O and with options for expansion. On the other hand, even buying an inexpensive PC requires loading software, setting it up, and making sure it's robust enough to not crash.

However, PC-based control has its merits. Specifically, it has greater number-crunching capability, more communication options, and is geared more toward data logging and trending, plant monitoring, report generation, and documentation. The key reasons to switch to PC-based control include networking the control system to higher-level applications such as ERP, handling complex mathematical applications such as vision inspection systems, and connecting to bar-code scanners, in-motion weigh scales, and other devices. In short, most users believe that when data must be transferred from the controller into a database for analysis, the transfer goes more smoothly when the data is already on a PC-based system.

How To Choose the Best Student Laptop?

Merchants are singing those three magic words again, 'Back to School' and the fallout is everywhere!

Just as you're getting your deep dark pre-cancerous tan going -- you hear those words -- and it spells the end of summer. Once again we are bombarded with advertising, featuring the latest in 'teen ware' 'school ware' and 'metal detector ware'. Kidding!

Is it just me or does it seem this year there is a lot more 'Back to School' advertising for notebooks and laptops? They seem to be everywhere... on TV, radio, and online.

Laptop ads are everywhere. Why is this?

Well, notebooks have come down in price, they have become more affordable, even for the modest student. Laptops have also come down in size, making them ideal for that school napsack, or dormroom. They have also become tougher and sturdier... better equipped to meet the hard/wear/tear that students give it.

With notebook technology changing every two years or so; notebooks can now handle most tasks students throw their way. These advanced notebooks can do the job. They also present a much stronger entertainment value to students, they can handle better graphics and gaming, but most students try to keep parents in the dark about this factor as they plead for a new laptop for college or school. All this pleading is further fueling the demand for laptops.

Then there is a little thing called the Internet. Throw in a wireless connection and the student laptop is coming into its own. Big Time!

The Internet has become a second teacher/parent/counselor to most students. God help us all! but it has also become a priceless source of the collective knowledge on this planet; frightening but true. The Internet is an invaluable source of knowledge for any high school/college student.

Not having ready access to all this knowledge and information will put any student at a disadvantage with his peers. It's a very competitive world, in high school, in college and in the future job market; every student should have an even playing field.

That's where the little notebook computer enters stage right!

Laptops or notebooks have quickly become a school necessity. When? How? Why?...

It's the perfect learning tool for students:

* very portable, you can carry them anywhere, class, cafe, dorm, home...

* very convenient, you can take notes in class, type up assignments, print assignments, communicate home, access the Internet...

* very tough, many newer notebooks are designed to withstand a good pounding and keep on computing, ruggerized for sturdy use...

* very powerful, notebooks or laptops are catching up to their desktop cousins in computing speed, hard drive storage and performance...

* very affordable, prices have dropped and are falling even further, laptops are now outselling desktop PCs so this price will drop even further, there's a whole slew of used and refurbished laptops hitting the market...

If you're a parent, student, or guardian; here are some of the factors you should consider when buying the best student laptop or notebook:

* size, it must be small, lightweight and very portable, fit comfortably under the arm or in that backpack

* sturdy, it must be tough, sturdy, ruggerized, and able to take more than one hard knock because students are students

* connections, wireless connections should be offered, the Internet is such a valuable tool in itself - a student should be able to access it anywhere. Most notebooks have these connections but check -- a printer port, a 56Kbps-modem, a VGA port for an external monitor, and should have at least one usb port for external keyboard/mouse, digital cameras, drives, and MP3 players

* technical specs, it should have enough RAM, storage space (hard drive) and computing speed to do any job the student can throw at it

* battery life, make sure your student notebook has a reasonable battery life, 5 hours or more

* price, it should be reasonably priced, refurbished laptops may be an option for those on a strict budget

However, some words of wisdom, students or parents shouldn't skimp too much -- if you're spending 10's of thousands on an education, you should also provide for the best possible equipment in the form of a sturdy, lightweight high performance laptop. Besides, a high quality laptop will last for years... just imagine your son or daughter writing their resumes on it after they have finished college... keep this image in your mind as you go about buying that perfect student laptop.

Check out some of the top rated laptops for students here: Notebook For Students

Copyright 2005 Titus Hoskins Click here for a Free Desktop Calendar & Planner,
compliments of the author and DATEwise. This article may be freely distributed if
this resource box stays attached.

Even the guys who play golf for a living and get the best golf instruction in the world still struggle to improve their golf; and they practice each and every day! Many golfers play golf just to hack around and have some fun; more avid players are always looking for ways to improve their golf swing and their overall game. Most golfers don't know that eighty percent of the world's golfers have a handicap of 18 or more.

A common mental error golfers make when driving the ball is to hit it as hard as possible. Visualize where you would like the ball to land, as you swing. Overall, you generally want to play golf with confidence.

Trust your golf club to do the job it was intended to do. Standing over the ball for too long a time and wondering whether you're going to swing the club correctly can easily result in a skewed shot, or completely missing the ball. Make sure to use the proper technique.

Putts and short chips are ideally played without much movement of the body, but most other golf shots are played using variants of the full golf swing. When you swing if you have problems with your left knee buckling, imagine you're holding a soccer ball between your knees.

The backswing is a rotation to the right, consisting of a shifting of the player's body weight to the right side, a turning of the pelvis and shoulders, lifting of the arms and flexing of the elbows and wrists.

Swing slowly and steadily using a nice rhythm. Pick out a spot on the course, preferably the green of the fairway, and concentrate on hitting the ball to that spot. Use the muscles in your legs and trunk when you swing.

At the end of a swing, the weight has shifted almost entirely to the left foot, the body is fully turned to the left and the hands are above the left shoulder with the club hanging down over the players' back.

It's difficult for a golfer to practice hitting shots longer than short pitch shots unless one pays to play golf or pays to practice at a driving range or indoor golf training facility.

Conditioning your golf muscles will reward you with straighter swings. Hold a medicine ball and turn back and forth; it must be rotational to improve your driving distance. Turn to golf exercise and techniques if you want strength and power.

Most of all don't waste your money on a golf swing aid you don't need or will never use. golf aids are often for sale at your pro shop or local golf shop. Be careful about the claims on TV commercials and magazine ads; seek expert advice before you buy because they may not live up to their claims.

There are a wide range of golf swing aids on the market today to help the beginning and advanced golfer. Whether you're a seasoned golfer or just starting out, pick just one golf swing aid and go to work on your swing. Keep in mind that with some golf swing aids, you may still need advice or help from an expert.

golf swing aids come in all shapes and sizes including apparel type accessories to correct alignment or a golf club add-on accessory to monitor your swing. If you're looking for an aid to improve your stance they're not hard to find. Before buying any golf swing aid, check with an expert to get an idea of what problem you need to work on first; backlift of golf swing, momentum of downward thrust or stance for example.

golf magazines often review the newest golf swing aids and are reviewed by golfers, making it easy to choose the right one for you. You can find golf swing aids that will help you with your wrist and arm position.

Take as many private lessons as you can afford with a good golf pro. Try to concentrate on one golf swing weakness at a time. Golfers can never get enough golf tips.

For more information on golf swing improvement golf swing aids and golf swing fitness go to http://www.Best-Golf-Guide.com specializing in golf tips, help, advice, resources, and instruction including information on golf swing tips.